WO2006022885A1

WO2006022885A1 - Ultra cleaning of combustion gas including the removal of co2

Info

Publication number: WO2006022885A1
Application number: PCT/US2005/012794
Authority: WO
Inventors: Eli Gal
Original assignee: Eig, Inc.
Priority date: 2004-08-06
Filing date: 2005-04-12
Publication date: 2006-03-02
Also published as: EP1781400A1; RU2378040C2; AU2005278126A1; US7641717B2; NO20070165L; JP4995084B2; JP2008508099A; AU2005278126B2; EP1781400A4; KR20070053738A; NO335509B1; BRPI0514141A; CA2574633A1; EP1781400B1; KR100869665B1; US20100064889A1; CA2574633C; US8308849B2; DK1781400T3; IL180614A0

Abstract

Ultra cleaning of combustion gas to near zero concentration of residual contaminants followed by the capture of CO2 is provided. The high removal efficiency of residual contaminants is accomplished by direct contact cooling and scrubbing of the gas with cold water. The temperature of the combustion gas is reduced to 0-20 degrees Celsius to achieve maximum condensation and gas cleaning effect. The CO2 is captured from the cooled and clean flue gas in a CO2 absorber (134) utilizing an ammoniated solution or slurry in the NH3-CO2-H2O system. The absorber operates at 0-20 degrees Celsius. Regeneration is accomplished by elevating the pressure and temperature of the CO2-rich solution from the absorber. The CO2 vapor pressure is high and a pressurized CO2 stream, with low concentration of NH3 and water vapor is generated. The high pressure CO2 stream is cooled and washed to recover the ammonia and moisture from the gas.

Description

PATENT APPLICATION

FOR

ULTRA CLEANING OF COMBUSTION GAS INCLUDING THE

REMOVAL OF CO₂

FIFiLD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to systems and methods for ultra cleaning of combustion gas followed by the capture and regeneration of CO₂.

BACKGROUND

Most of the energy used in the world today is derived from the combustion of carbon and hydrogen containing fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas. In addition to carbon and hydrogen, these fuels contain oxygen, moisture and contaminants such as ash, sulfur, nitrogen compounds, chlorine, mercury and other trace elements. Awareness to the damaging effects of the contaminants released during combustion triggers the enforcement of ever more stringent limits on emissions from power plants, refineries and other industrial processes. There is an increased pressure on operators of such plants to achieve near zero emission of contaminants and to reduce CO₂ emission.

The art teaches various processes and technologies designed to reduce the emission of contaminants from combustion gases. Baghouses, electrostatic precipitators and wet scrubbers are typically used to capture particulate matter, various chemical processes are used to reduce sulfur oxides, HCl and HF emissions, combustion modifications and NO_x reduction processes are used to reduce NO_x emission and processes are being developed to capture mercury and other trace elements from combustion gas.

Significant progress has been made in the last 20-30 years and plants today are a lot cleaner and safer to the environment than in the past. However, there are growing indications that even small concentration of particulate matter and especially the very fine, less than 2.5 micron size particles (PM2.5), sulfur oxides, acid mist and mercury are harmful to human health and need to be controlled.

Controlling the residual emission is still a challenge and with existing technologies the cost of capturing the last few percents of harmful contaminants is very high.

In addition, in the last few years, there is a growing concern related to the accumulation of CO₂, a greenhouse gas, in the atmosphere. The accelerated increase of CO₂ concentration in the atmosphere is attributed to the growing use of fuels, such as coal, oil and gas, which release billions of tons of CO₂ to the atmosphere every year.

Reduction in CO₂ emission can be achieved by improving efficiency of energy utilization, by switching to lower carbon concentration fuels and by using alternative, CO₂ neutral, energy sources. However, short of a major breakthrough in energy technology, CO₂ emitting fuels will continue to be the main source of energy in the foreseeable future. Consequently, a low cost low energy consuming process for capturing and sequestering CO₂ is needed to reverse the trend of global warming. State of the art technologies for capturing CO₂ are not suitable for operation with dirty, low pressure, low CO₂ concentration, and oxygen containing combustion gases. Available commercial technologies for CO₂ capture are energy intensive and high cost. If applied they would impose a heavy toll on the cost of energy utilization.

An applicable process currently available for post combustion CO₂ capture is the amine process using Mono-Ethanol-Amine (MEA) or similar amines to react with CO₂. The MEA process is capable of achieving high capture efficiency and of generating a concentrated CO₂ stream for sequestration. However, the process has several drawbacks including:

• The MEA reagent is expensive and degrades in oxygen and CO₂ environment.

• The MEA is corrosive and can be used only in a relatively diluted form.

• The reaction of MEA with CO₂ is highly exothermic.

• Regeneration is energy intensive.

• The process is a large consumer of heat and auxiliary power.

The cost of the amine process and system is very high and the net power output of a power plant equipped with amine system to capture CO₂ is greatly reduced.

To achieve clean burning of fuels with near zero emission, including the emission of CO₂, there is a need for a low cost low energy process that:

• Captures residual contaminants

• Captures CO₂ and releases it in a concentrated and high pressure form for sequestration. Accordingly, it would be considered an advance in the art to develop new systems and methods to overcome the current problems and shortcomings.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is an integrated method and system to efficiently and cost effectively reduce the emission of residuals, such as SO₂, SO₃, HCl, HF and particulate matter including PM2.5, from combustion gas, downstream of conventional air pollution control systems, to near zero levels. Further, the system of the current invention reduces CO₂ emission by capturing and delivering it to sequestration in a concentrated form and at high pressure. It is the objective of this invention that the process would be relatively uncomplicated, would utilize low cost reagent, would generate no additional waste streams and most importantly, would be a low cost and low energy consumer.

The present invention is a wet method and system whereby the saturated combustion gas, downstream of conventional air pollution control equipment and system, is cooled to well below its ambient saturation temperature. The cooling is achieved by direct contact with cold water in dedicated vessels. The direct contact between the gas and the liquid, combining with massive condensation of moisture from the saturated gas, is a very efficient wet scrubber. Optionally, alkaline materials such as sodium or ammonium carbonate can be added to the direct contact cooler to enhance the capture of the acidic species in the gas. The direct cooling to low temperature can be achieved in one or more cooling stages. Continuous bleed from the direct contact cooler, prevents the accumulation of the captured contaminants in the direct contact coolers. In a preferred embodiment, the chilled water will be generated in cooling towers with additional cooling, to low temperature in the range of 0-20, or even 0-10, degrees Celsius, by efficient mechanical vapor compression where the water itself is used as the refrigerant.

In accordance with the, current invention, cooling of the gas substantially reduces its moisture content. The cooled and low moisture gas has relatively low volume and relatively high CO₂ concentration thus making the efficient capture of CO₂ easier and lower cost.

The invention further involves the mass transfer and the reaction of gaseous CO₂ from the combustion gas with CO₂-lean ammoniated solution to form CO₂-rich ammoniated solution. According to the current invention, the absorption reaction occurs in a CO₂ absorber operating at about atmospheric pressure and at low temperature preferably in the temperature range of 0-20, or even 0-10, degrees Celsius. The low temperature enhances mass transfer of CO₂ to the solution while substantially reducing the vapor pressure of ammonia and preventing its evaporation into the gas stream. One or more stages of CO₂ absorption can be used depending on the capture efficiency requirements.

Further, in accordance with the current invention, the pressure of the CO₂-rich solution from the CO₂ absorber is elevated by high-pressure pump to the range of 30-2000 psi and it is heated to the temperature range of 50-200 degrees Celsius and preferably to the temperature range of 100-150 degrees Celsius. Under the conditions above the CO₂ separates from the solution and evolves as a relatively clean and high-pressure gas stream. The high pressure CO₂ gas stream contains low concentration of ammonia and water vapor, which can be recovered by cold washing of the CO₂ gas steam. The regeneration reaction is endothermic. However, the heat of reaction is low and the overall heat consumption of the process is relatively low. Moreover, the high-pressure regeneration minimizes the evaporation of ammonia and water thus minimizing the energy consumed in the process. Also, low-grade heat can be used for the regeneration of the CO₂ to further reduce the impact of the CO₂ capture on the overall efficiency of the plant. The CO₂-lean solution used in the absorber to capture the CO₂ contains NH₃/CO₂ mole ratio in the range of 1.5-4.0 and preferably in the range of 1.5-3.0. The CO₂-rich solution sent for regeneration contains NH₃/CO₂ mole ratio in the range of 1.0-2.0 and preferably in the range of 1.0-1.5.

The present invention has the advantage of high efficiency low cost capture of residual contaminants from the combustion gas followed by high efficiency low cost capture and regeneration of CO₂. Low temperature absorption and high-pressure regeneration are critical to successful operation of the process and system. The simple, low cost and efficient system has notable advantage over other cleaning and CO₂ capturing processes and it is a real breakthrough in achieving the objective of near zero emission of contaminants.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The above and other advantages of this invention will become more apparent from the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of the integrated system to capture residual contaminants and CO₂ from combustion gas downstream of conventional air pollution control systems. The system includes gas cleaning, CO₂ absorption and CO₂ regeneration.

FIG. 2 is a schematic of the subsystems for the cooling of the gas and for deep cleaning of residual contaminants.

FIG. 3 is a schematic of the CO₂ capture and regeneration subsystems. It includes CO₂ absorber which operates at low temperature and CO₂ regenerator which operates at moderate temperature and at high pressure.

DETAILED DESCRPTION OF THE INVENTION

In accordance with the present invention, a process and system to remove most contaminants, including CO₂, from gas streams is provided. These gases are typically resulting from the combustion or gasification of coal, liquid fuels, gaseous fuels and organic waste materials. The contaminants include residual of e.g. SO₂, SO₃, HCl, HF, CO₂, particulate matter including PM2.5, mercury and other volatile matter. The high removal efficiency of the contaminants is achieved by saturation and efficient cooling of the gas to below its adiabatic saturation temperature and preferably to as low as 0-20, or even 0-10, degrees Celsius. Fine particles and acid mist are nucleation sites for the condensation of water. Thus, practically all fine particles and acid mist are removed from the gas stream. The low temperature creates an environment of low vapor pressure of SO₂, SO₃, HCl, HF, Mercury and other volatile matter, which condense into the cold water as well.

The cooling of the flue gas enables the efficient capture of CO₂ in CO₂-lean ammoniated solution or slurry. Absorption of the CO₂ is achieved at low temperature preferably at as low as 0-20 degrees Celsius or at as low as 0-10 degrees Celsius. The absorbent is regenerated by elevating the temperature of the solution or slurry to the range of 50-200 degrees Celsius and to pressures in the range of 30-2000 psig. The low temperature of absorption and the high pressure of regeneration result in high CO₂ capture efficiency, low energy consumption and low loss of ammonia through evaporation. The CO₂ absorption takes place in the aqueous NH₃-CO₂-H₂O system where the ammonia can be in the form of ammonium ion, NH₄ ⁺, or in the form of dissolved molecular NH₃. The CO₂ can be in the form of carbonate, C0₃ ⁼, bicarbonate, HCO₃ ^" or in the form of dissolved molecular CO₂. The capacity of the solution to absorb CO₂ and the form in which the species are present depends on the ammonia concentration, on the NH₃/CO₂ mole ratio and on the temperature and pressure.

High NH₃/CO₂ mole ratio increases the vapor pressure of ammonia and results in ammonia losses through evaporation. Low NH₃/CO₂ ratio increases the vapor pressure of CO₂ and decreases its capture efficiency. Thus, the optimal NH₃/CO₂ mole ratio for absorption is in the range of 1.0-4.0 and preferably in the range of 1.5 to 3.0. High temperature increases the vapor pressure of both ammonia and CO₂. As a result, the absorber should operate at the lowest practical temperature and preferably in the 0-20 degrees Celsius temperature range or even in the 0-10 degrees Celsius temperature range.

At high concentration and lower temperature the solubility limits may be reached and solids particles precipitate. These solids particles are typically in the form of ammonium carbonate (NH₄)₂CO₃ for high NH₃/CO₂ ratio and ammonium bicarbonate NH₄HCO₃ for low NH₃/CO₂ ratio.

The mass transfer and absorption reactions for concentrated low temperature slurries are the following:

• CO₂ (g) ^ CO₂ (aq)

• CO₂ (aq) + H₂O -» H⁺ + HCO₃ ^" ^• (NH₄)₂CO₃ (s) -^ 2NH₄ ⁺-KX)₃ ^'

• H⁺+CO₃ ⁼ ^ HCO₃-

• HCO₃^NH₄ ⁺ ^ NH₄HCO₃ (s)

Where CO₂ captured from the gas converts ammonium carbonate to ammonium bicarbonate. The reactions above are reversible and CO₂ is stripped from the liquid phase at elevated temperature.

Depending on the operating conditions, side undesired reactions may occur such as:

• NH₄ ⁺+CO₃ ⁼ -» NH₃ (g) + HCO₃-

• NH₄ ⁺+HCO₃- ^■* NH₃ (g) + CO₂ (g) + H₂O

Causing emission OfNH₃ into the gas phase. Lower temperature and lower NH₃/CO₂ ratio in the absorber suppresses these undesired reactions. However, during the regeneration and at elevated temperature, gaseous ammonia is formed. To prevent ammonia from escaping from the liquid phase (and for other reasons) the regenerator is deigned to operate under elevated pressure and under conditions where the solubility of ammonia in the solution is very high and the emission of gaseous ammonia is very low.

FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of the integrated process, which includes cleaning and cooling of the gas, CO₂ absorption into CO₂-lean ammoniated solution and CO₂ regeneration from the CO₂-rich solution. Stream 102 is a gas stream from combustion or industrial process containing residual contaminants, CO₂ and inert gas species. The CO₂ concentration of the gas is typically 10-15% for coal combustion and 3-4% for natural gas combustion. Subsystem 130 represents a series of conventional air pollution control processes which, depending on the source of the gas may include particulate collectors, NO_x and SO₂ control, acid mist capturing device and more. The contaminants collected in the system are removed in stream 112. Stream 104, downstream of the conventional cleaning devices, contains residual contaminants not collected by the conventional systems. It is typically water saturated and in the temperature range of 40-70 degrees Celsius. Subsystem 132 is a series of one or more Direct Contact Coolers (DCC), where cold water generated in cooling towers and chillers (not shown) is used to wash and scrub the gas, capture its residual contaminants and lower its moisture content. Stream 114, is a bleed from subsystem 132 designed to purge all the residual contaminants captured.

Stream 106 is a cooled gas suitable for CO₂ capture in the CO₂ absorber. Subsystem 134 represents the CO₂ absorber and may comprise of a series of absorber stages, depending on the removal efficiency required and the operating conditions of the plant. The clean gas with low CO₂ concentration, stream 108, is released to the atmosphere. Stream 124 is a cooled CO₂-lean ammoniated solution from the regenerator, subsystem 136, which is used as the absorbent to capture the CO₂ in the absorber. The resultant stream 120 is a CO₂-rich ammoniated solution sent for regeneration.

The regenerator, subsystem 136, operates at high pressure and elevated temperature and may be a single or a series of regeneration reactors. The pressure of the ammoniated solution fed to the regenerator is elevated using high pressure pump, pump 138, to yield stream 122 which is CO₂-rich and at high pressure. Typically, the pressure of stream 122 is in the range of 50-2500 psi, higher than the regenerator pressure to prevent premature evaporation of CO₂. Heat is provided to the regenerator by heating stream 126 in heater 140. The high pressure and high temperature in the regenerator cause the release of high- pressure gaseous CO₂, stream HO. The high-pressure regeneration has major cost and energy advantage. Low quality thermal energy is used to generate the high pressure CO₂ stream instead of high- value electric power.

FIG. 2 is a schematic representation of the cooling and cleaning subsystems, which may optionally include waste heat recovery, heat exchanger 240, for utilization of the residual heat in the gas. The residual heat in stream 202 can be extracted in heat exchanger 240 by transferring of the heat to a cooling medium streams 220 and 222. The heat can then be used downstream for CO2 regeneration.

Vessel 242 is a wet direct contact scrubber used to adiabatically cool and saturate the gas. If the gas contains high concentration of acid species, such as gas from coal or oil fired power

J plants, then reactor 242 is used for flue gas desulfurization. Acid absorbing reagent, such as limestone, stream 226, is added to vessel 242 and the product, such as gypsum, stream 224, is withdrawn. Make up water, stream 227, is added to vessel 242 from the Direct Contact Cooler (DCC) 244. The make up stream contains all the contaminants collected in the direct contact coolers. These contaminants are removed from the system with the discharge stream 224. Gas stream 202 in coal fired boiler is typically at temperature in the range of 100-200 degrees Celsius, gas stream 204 is typically at temperature range of 80-100 degrees Celsius and gas stream 206 is typically water-saturated and at temperature range of 40-70 degrees Celsius.

Two stages of direct contact cooling and cleaning, vessels 244 and 246, are shown in FIG. 2. The actual number of direct contact coolers may be higher and it depends on optimization between capital cost, energy efficiency and cleaning efficiency requirements. Gas stream 206 is cooled in DCC 244 to just above the cooling water temperature of stream 230. The temperature of the cooling water, stream 230, depends on the ambient conditions and on the operation and process conditions of Cooling Tower 250. Cooling Tower 250 can be of the wet type with temperature slightly below or slightly above ambient temperature, or the dry type with temperature above ambient temperature. Ambient air, Stream 212 provides the heat sink for the system and the heat is rejected in Stream 214, which absorbs the heat from water stream 228. The resultant cooled water stream 230, is typically at temperature range of 25-40 degrees Celsius and the resultant cooled combustion gas stream from DCC 244 is at about 1-3 degrees Celsius higher temperature. Alkaline materials such as ammonium or sodium carbonate can be added to DCC 244 to neutralize the acidic species captured. The alkaline materials can be added in makeup water, stream 225.

The cleaner and lower temperature, Stream 208 flows to DCC 246, which is similar to DCC 244 except for the fact that colder water, stream 234, is used for cooling. Stream 234 is a chilled water stream cooled by Chiller 248, which is preferably a mechanical vapor compression machine with water as its refrigerant. Heat from Chiller 248 is rejected via stream 236 to Cooling Tower 250 with returning stream 238. Cooling water stream 234 can be as cold as 0-3 degrees Celsius or higher resulting in combustion gas temperature, stream 210, exiting DCC 246 being at 0-10 degrees Celsius temperature or few degrees higher. The heat absorbed from the gas stream is removed from DCC 246 via water stream 232. More condensation occurs in DCC 246 and further capture of contaminants. These contaminants are bled from the system to vessel 242. (Bleed stream is not shown). Gas Stream 210, the product of the cooling and cleaning subsystem shown in FIG. 2, is at low temperature; it contains low moisture and practically has no particulate matter, acidic or volatile species.

FIG. 3 is a schematic representation of the CO₂ capture and regeneration subsystem. Stream 302 is a clean and cooled gas stream, similar to stream 210 in FIG. 2. It flows into the CO₂ absorber 350, where the CO₂ is absorbed by a cooled CO₂-lean ammoniated solution or slurry, Stream 324 containing NH₃/CO₂ mole ratio in the range of 1.5-4.0 and preferably 1.5-3.0. Depending on the absorber design and the number of absorption stages used, more than 90% of the CO₂ in Stream 302 can be captured to yield a cold and CO₂ depleted gas stream 304. Residual ammonia in stream 304 can be washed in vessel 356 by cold water or by cold and slightly acidic solution, stream 338. Stream 338 is cooled in heat exchanger 368. As a result of the cooling, cleaning and CO₂ capture, the gas stream discharged from the system, Stream 306, contains mainly nitrogen, oxygen and low concentration of CO₂ and H₂O.

Stream 324 is a CO₂-lean stream from the regenerator, which is cooled in the regenerative heat exchanger 354 and further by chilled water in heat exchanger 362. It captures CO₂ in absorber 350 and discharges from the absorber, Stream 312, as a CO₂-rich stream with NH₃/CO₂ mole ratio in the range of 1.0-2.0 and preferably with NH₃/CO₂ mole ratio in the range of 1.0-1.5. In a preferred embodiment, stream 312 contains high concentration of dissolved and suspended ammonium bicarbonate. A portion of stream 312 is optionally recycled back to the absorber while the balance, Stream 314, is pressurized in high pressure pump 360 to yield high pressure ammoniated solution stream 316. Stream 316 is heated in regenerative heat exchanger 354, by exchanging heat with the hot and CO₂-lean stream from the regenerator, stream 322, which is a portion of stream 320 discharged at the bottom of regenerator 352.

The CO₂-rich stream from the regenerative heat exchanger 354, stream 318, can be further heated with waste heat from the boiler or from other sources. It flows into the regenerator 352, which has one or more stages of regeneration. More heat is provided to the regenerator from heat exchanger 364, which heats stream 330. The heat provided to the system from the various sources, elevates the regenerator temperature to 50-150 degrees Celsius or higher, depending on the desired pressure of the CO₂ stream 308 and subject to cost optimization consideration. The higher the temperature the higher will be the pressure of the CO₂ that evolves from the solution, stream 308. The higher the pressure the lower will be the ammonia and water vapor content of stream 308. To generate low temperature and highly concentrated CO₂ stream, stream 308 is washed and cooled in direct contact vessel 358 with cold water, stream 336 from heat exchanger 366. Excess water and NH₃ captured in vessel 358, stream 332, flows back to regenerator 352 while the balance, stream 334, is cooled and recycled to the wash chamber, vessel 358.

The present invention has now been described in accordance with several exemplary embodiments, which are intended to be illustrative in all aspects, rather than restrictive. Thus, the present invention is capable of many variations in detailed implementation, which may be derived from the description contained herein by a person of ordinary skill in the art. All such variations and other variations are considered to be within the scope and spirit of the present invention as defined by the following claims and their legal equivalents.

Claims

CLAIMSWhat is claimed is:

1. A system for ultra cleaning of a contaminated combustion gas, comprising:

(a) a cooling subsystem with one or more direct and wet cooling stages to cool down a gas stream to condense water from said gas stream and to capture and remove contaminants from said gas stream;

(b) an absorbing subsystem with one or more CO₂ absorbing stages to absorb CO₂ from said cooled gas stream using an ammoniated solution or slurry; and

(c) a regeneration subsystem with one or more CO₂ regeneration stages to separate CO₂ from said absorbed and ammoniated CO₂.

2. The system as set forth in claim 1, wherein said cooling subsystem cools down said gas stream to about 0-20 degrees Celsius.

3. The system as set forth in claim 1, wherein said cooling subsystem cools down said gas stream to about 0-10 degrees Celsius.

4. The system as set forth in claim 1, wherein said CO₂ is absorbed into a CO₂-lean NH₃-CO₂-H₂O solution or slurry.

5. The system as set forth in claim 4, wherein said CO₂-lean solution or slurry has aNH₃/CO₂ mole ratio in the range of 1.5-4.0.

6. The system as set forth in claim 4, wherein said C0₂-lean solution or slurry has a NH₃/CO₂ mole ratio in the range of 1.5-3.0.

7. The system as set forth in claim 1, wherein said absorbing subsystem operates at a temperature in the range of 0-20 degrees Celsius.

8. The system as set forth in claim 1, wherein said absorbing subsystem operates at a temperature in the range of 0-10 degrees Celsius.

9. The system as set forth in claim 1, wherein said absorbing subsystem generates a CO₂-richNH₃-CO₂-H₂O solution.

10. The system as set forth in claim 9, wherein said CO₂-iϊch solution has a NH₃/CO₂ mole ratio in the range of 1.0-2.0.

11. The system as set forth in claim 9, wherein said CO₂-rich solution has a NH₃/CO₂ mole ratio in the range of 1.0-1.5.

12. The system as set forth in claim 1, wherein said regeneration subsystem operates at a temperature in the range of 50-200 degrees Celsius.

13. The system as set forth in claim 1, wherein said regeneration subsystem operates at a temperature in the range of 100-150 degrees Celsius.

14. The system as set forth in claim I₅ wherein said regeneration subsystem operates at a pressure in the range of 30-2000 psi.

15. The system as set forth in claim I₅ wherein said regeneration subsystem operates at a pressure in the range of 150-400 psi.

16. A method for ultra cleaning of a contaminated combustion gas, comprising the steps of:

(a) cooling down a gas stream with one or more direct and wet cooling stages to condense water from said gas stream and to capture and remove contaminants from said gas stream;

(b) absorbing CO₂ from said cooled gas stream with one or more CO₂ absorbing stages using an ammoniated solution or slurry; and

(c) regenerating CO₂ with one or more CO₂ regeneration stages to separate CO₂ from said absorbed and ammoniated CO₂.

17. The method as set forth in claim 16, wherein said cooling step occurs at a temperature in the range of 0-20 degrees Celsius.

18. The method as set forth in claim 16, wherein said cooling step occurs at a temperature in the range of 0-10 degrees Celsius

19. The method as set forth in claim 16, wherein said CO₂ is absorbed into a CO₂- lean NH₃-CO₂-H₂O solution or slurry.

20. The method as set forth in claim 19, wherein said CO₂-lean solution or slurry has aNH₃/CO₂ mole ratio in the range of 1.5-4.0.

21. The method as set forth in claim 19, wherein said CO₂-lean solution or slurry has aNH₃/CO₂ mole ratio in the range of 1.5-3.0.

22. The method as set forth in claim 19, wherein the species in said NH₃-CO₂- H₂O solution or slurry are in water-dissolved form.

23. The method as set forth in claim 19, wherein the species in said NH₃-CO₂- H₂O solution or slurry is concentrated such to contain dissolved and suspended solids having ammonium carbonate, (NH₄)₂CO₃, and ammonium bicarbonate, NH₄HCO₃, salts.

24. The method as set forth in claim 16, wherein said absorbing step occurs at a temperature in the range of 0-20 degrees Celsius.

25. The method as set forth in claim 16, wherein said absorbing step occurs at temperature in the range of 0-10 degrees Celsius.

26. The method as set forth in claim 16, wherein said absorbing step generates a CO₂-rich NH₃-CO₂-H₂O solution.

27. The method as set forth in claim 26, wherein said CO₂-rich solution has a NH₃/CO₂ mole ratio in the range of 1.0-2.0.

28. The method as set forth in claim 26, wherein said CO₂-rich solution has a

NH₃/CO₂ mole ratio in the range of 1.0-1.5.

29. The method as set forth in claim 16, wherein said regenerating step occurs at a temperature in the range of 50-200 degrees Celsius.

30. The method as set forth in claim 16, wherein said regenerating step occurs at a temperature in the range of 100-150 degrees Celsius.

31. The method as set forth in claim 16, wherein said regenerating step occurs at a pressure in the range of 30-2000 psi.

32. The method as set forth in claim 16, wherein said regenerating step occurs at a pressure in the range of 150-400 psi.