WO1999039861A1 - Modified friction stir welding - Google Patents
Modified friction stir welding Download PDFInfo
- Publication number
- WO1999039861A1 WO1999039861A1 PCT/NO1999/000042 NO9900042W WO9939861A1 WO 1999039861 A1 WO1999039861 A1 WO 1999039861A1 NO 9900042 W NO9900042 W NO 9900042W WO 9939861 A1 WO9939861 A1 WO 9939861A1
- Authority
- WO
- WIPO (PCT)
- Prior art keywords
- members
- probe
- heat source
- friction stir
- primary heat
- Prior art date
Links
Classifications
-
- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B23—MACHINE TOOLS; METAL-WORKING NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
- B23K—SOLDERING OR UNSOLDERING; WELDING; CLADDING OR PLATING BY SOLDERING OR WELDING; CUTTING BY APPLYING HEAT LOCALLY, e.g. FLAME CUTTING; WORKING BY LASER BEAM
- B23K20/00—Non-electric welding by applying impact or other pressure, with or without the application of heat, e.g. cladding or plating
- B23K20/12—Non-electric welding by applying impact or other pressure, with or without the application of heat, e.g. cladding or plating the heat being generated by friction; Friction welding
- B23K20/122—Non-electric welding by applying impact or other pressure, with or without the application of heat, e.g. cladding or plating the heat being generated by friction; Friction welding using a non-consumable tool, e.g. friction stir welding
- B23K20/123—Controlling or monitoring the welding process
- B23K20/1235—Controlling or monitoring the welding process with temperature control during joining
-
- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B23—MACHINE TOOLS; METAL-WORKING NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
- B23K—SOLDERING OR UNSOLDERING; WELDING; CLADDING OR PLATING BY SOLDERING OR WELDING; CUTTING BY APPLYING HEAT LOCALLY, e.g. FLAME CUTTING; WORKING BY LASER BEAM
- B23K13/00—Welding by high-frequency current heating
- B23K13/01—Welding by high-frequency current heating by induction heating
-
- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B23—MACHINE TOOLS; METAL-WORKING NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
- B23K—SOLDERING OR UNSOLDERING; WELDING; CLADDING OR PLATING BY SOLDERING OR WELDING; CUTTING BY APPLYING HEAT LOCALLY, e.g. FLAME CUTTING; WORKING BY LASER BEAM
- B23K26/00—Working by laser beam, e.g. welding, cutting or boring
- B23K26/346—Working by laser beam, e.g. welding, cutting or boring in combination with welding or cutting covered by groups B23K5/00 - B23K25/00, e.g. in combination with resistance welding
Definitions
- the present invention relates to friction stir welding and more particularly to a modified method and an apparatus improving the welding process parameters.
- Friction stir welding is a new friction welding process.
- the principles of the process and applied apparatus as disclosed by WO 93/10935 are based on a relative cyclic movement between a non-consumable probe of a harder material than the workpieces to be joined and the workpieces. Urging the rotating probe into the assembled adjacent workpieces along their joining line creates a plasticised region in the workpieces due to a generated frictional heat. Thus no heat is generated as in conventional friction stir welding due to a relative motion between the workpieces to be joined.
- This new welding method having the advantage of solid state bonding, has been successfully implemented on providing plate and profile joints not previously feasible.
- Another object of the present invention is to provide a novel apparatus adapted to a high speed friction stir welding.
- Fig. 1 illustrates schematically the basic principle of the improved friction stir welding
- Fig. 2 is a picture of a weld seam achieved by a preferred embodiment of the welding apparatus according to the present invention.
- FIG. 1 two plate members 1 ,2 are shown schematically being welded together by means of a rotating probe comprising a non-consumable pin.
- a primary heat source 5 is attached to the welding apparatus in front of the rotating probe in the friction welding tool 3.
- a moving induction coil is applied as the primary heat source 5 to provide controlled heating of a limited volume of the welded material beneath the tool shoulder to plasticise the material.
- the main function of the rotating pin is to control the flow pattern of the preheated material and to break up oxide skin introduced from the welded members.
- the modified friction stir welding process has the following advantages:
- the induction heating being a non-contact heating method, gives a better control of the material to be heated within a well defined area. Furthermore, thanks to the fact that the heat source is cooler than the heated material, the temperature regulation is both very rapid and accurate.
- an induction coil ensuring the same current direction on each side of the split provides controlled return of the "outside" current stream(s).
- This current distribution in the adjacent joined-to-be members further prevents formation of sparks in the split area (safety aspects and avoiding of surface damage) and formation of non-beneficial magnetic fields.
- Nd-YAG laser could advantageously be applied in friction stir welding of Al-alloys or any other conventional heat sources ensuring a controlled preheating of members.
Abstract
Description
Claims
Priority Applications (1)
Application Number | Priority Date | Filing Date | Title |
---|---|---|---|
AU24429/99A AU2442999A (en) | 1998-02-09 | 1999-02-08 | Modified friction stir welding |
Applications Claiming Priority (2)
Application Number | Priority Date | Filing Date | Title |
---|---|---|---|
NO980542A NO980542D0 (en) | 1998-02-09 | 1998-02-09 | Modified stir friction welding |
NO19980542 | 1998-02-09 |
Publications (1)
Publication Number | Publication Date |
---|---|
WO1999039861A1 true WO1999039861A1 (en) | 1999-08-12 |
Family
ID=19901651
Family Applications (1)
Application Number | Title | Priority Date | Filing Date |
---|---|---|---|
PCT/NO1999/000042 WO1999039861A1 (en) | 1998-02-09 | 1999-02-08 | Modified friction stir welding |
Country Status (3)
Country | Link |
---|---|
AU (1) | AU2442999A (en) |
NO (1) | NO980542D0 (en) |
WO (1) | WO1999039861A1 (en) |
Cited By (39)
Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
---|---|---|---|---|
US6168067B1 (en) | 1998-06-23 | 2001-01-02 | Mcdonnell Douglas Corporation | High strength friction stir welding |
US6264088B1 (en) * | 1997-05-16 | 2001-07-24 | Esab Ab | Welding assembly for friction stir welding |
DE10036170C1 (en) * | 2000-07-25 | 2001-12-06 | Eads Deutschland Gmbh | Laser-supported friction welding process comprises pressing side surfaces of the workpieces so that they touch the workpiece surface moving away from the welding probe and are spaced in the central region up to the workpiece surface |
US6352193B1 (en) | 2000-08-01 | 2002-03-05 | General Electric Company | Apparatus for joining electrically conductive materials |
WO2002074479A1 (en) * | 2001-03-19 | 2002-09-26 | Rotem Industries Ltd. | Improved process and apparatus for friction stir welding |
US6648206B2 (en) | 2000-05-08 | 2003-11-18 | Tracey W. Nelson | Friction stir welding using a superabrasive tool |
US6722556B2 (en) * | 1999-11-18 | 2004-04-20 | Gkss Forschungszentrum Geesthacht Gmbh | Method and device for joining at least two adjoining work pieces by friction welding |
US6736305B2 (en) | 2000-09-07 | 2004-05-18 | Rolls-Royce Plc | Method and apparatus for friction welding |
US6769595B2 (en) * | 2000-12-20 | 2004-08-03 | Alcoa Inc. | Friction plunge riveting |
US6776328B2 (en) | 2002-09-17 | 2004-08-17 | The Boeing Company | Radiation assisted friction welding |
US6780525B2 (en) * | 2001-12-26 | 2004-08-24 | The Boeing Company | High strength friction stir welding |
EP1514632A1 (en) * | 2003-09-11 | 2005-03-16 | The Boeing Company | Apparatus and method for friction stir welding with a variable speed pin |
US7078647B2 (en) | 2004-10-21 | 2006-07-18 | Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation | Arc-enhanced friction stir welding |
US7121448B2 (en) | 2003-08-29 | 2006-10-17 | General Electric Company | Friction stir welding apparatus and associated thermal management systems and methods |
US7156277B2 (en) * | 2004-09-27 | 2007-01-02 | Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. | Friction stir welding method and apparatus |
US7225968B2 (en) | 2003-08-04 | 2007-06-05 | Sii Megadiamond, Inc. | Crack repair using friction stir welding on materials including metal matrix composites, ferrous alloys, non-ferrous alloys, and superalloys |
US7270257B2 (en) | 2003-01-30 | 2007-09-18 | Sii Megadiamond, Inc. | Out-of-position friction stir welding of high melting temperature alloys |
US7530486B2 (en) | 2003-05-05 | 2009-05-12 | Sii Megadiamond, Inc. | Applications of friction stir welding using a superabrasive tool |
US7608296B2 (en) | 2001-06-12 | 2009-10-27 | Brigham Young University | Anvil for friction stir welding high temperature materials |
US7651018B2 (en) | 2004-10-05 | 2010-01-26 | Sii Megadiamond | Expandable mandrel for use in friction stir welding |
US7882998B2 (en) | 2005-09-26 | 2011-02-08 | Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht Zentrum für Material-und Küstenforschung GmbH | Method and apparatus of producing a welded connection between the surfaces of two planar workpieces |
US7980449B2 (en) * | 2001-11-27 | 2011-07-19 | The United States Of America As Represented By The Administrator Of The National Aeronautics And Space Administration | Thermal stir welding apparatus |
DE102010018504A1 (en) | 2010-04-28 | 2011-11-03 | Aleris Aluminum Koblenz Gmbh | Producing a hollow profile, preferably a tube made of a semi-finished metal, comprises welding the semi-finished product along a weld seam running in extending direction of the hollow profile to be produced, and using friction stir welding |
US8056797B2 (en) | 2005-10-05 | 2011-11-15 | Megastir Technologies | Expandable mandrel for use in friction stir welding |
US8186561B2 (en) | 2004-03-24 | 2012-05-29 | Megastir Technologies, LLC | Solid state processing of hand-held knife blades to improve blade performance |
WO2012084140A1 (en) * | 2010-12-14 | 2012-06-28 | Hochschule Für Angewandte Wissenschaften - Fachhochschule Kempten | Method for joining workpieces by using a joining element and heating the joining element and the workpieces |
WO2013081731A1 (en) * | 2011-12-01 | 2013-06-06 | Lawrence Livermore National Security, Llc | System and method for light assisted friction stir processing and welding of metallic and non-metallic materials |
US8550326B2 (en) | 2005-10-05 | 2013-10-08 | Megastir Technologies Llc | Expandable mandrel for use in friction stir welding |
US20130276299A1 (en) * | 2012-04-18 | 2013-10-24 | Ford Global Technologies, Llc | Clamping and Heating Apparatus For Joining Tools |
US8955734B2 (en) | 2004-05-21 | 2015-02-17 | Smith International, Inc. | Ball hole welding using the friction stir welding (FSW) process |
US8967451B2 (en) | 2008-07-09 | 2015-03-03 | Fluor Technologies Corporation | High-speed friction stir welding |
CN105033475A (en) * | 2015-09-18 | 2015-11-11 | 哈尔滨工业大学 | Steel-side-high-frequency-induction-heating-assisted friction stir welding method for alumimum-steel material butt joint |
US9242308B2 (en) | 2009-11-02 | 2016-01-26 | Megastir Technologies Llc | Out of position friction stir welding of casing and small diameter tubing or pipe |
US9676056B2 (en) | 2011-12-16 | 2017-06-13 | Hochschule für angewandte Wissenschaften—Fachhochschule Kempten | Method for joining two essentially metal sheet-type workpieces by means of friction squeeze welding using a filler material |
CN107877016A (en) * | 2017-12-11 | 2018-04-06 | 重集团天津重工有限公司 | The sensing heating stirring friction composition welding method and device of steel docking |
CN114939716A (en) * | 2022-07-06 | 2022-08-26 | 重庆理工大学 | Method for improving surface corrosion sensitivity of aluminum alloy friction stir welding joint |
CN114951955A (en) * | 2022-05-26 | 2022-08-30 | 南京航空航天大学 | Friction stir welding composite energy field method and device for high-melting-point dissimilar material thin plate |
CN115121932A (en) * | 2022-06-29 | 2022-09-30 | 广东铭利达科技有限公司 | Aluminum alloy ultrasonic vibration assisted stirring friction welding method |
GB2608136A (en) * | 2021-06-22 | 2022-12-28 | Pinweld Ltd | Polymeric pipe welding apparatus |
Families Citing this family (1)
Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
---|---|---|---|---|
CN111673263A (en) * | 2020-05-11 | 2020-09-18 | 首钢集团有限公司 | Friction stir welding method for ultrahigh-strength steel and aluminum alloy |
Citations (4)
Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
---|---|---|---|---|
US3779446A (en) * | 1971-10-13 | 1973-12-18 | J Lemelson | Welding apparatus |
US4144110A (en) * | 1969-06-05 | 1979-03-13 | Jane Luc | Dynamic friction bonding process |
WO1993010935A1 (en) * | 1991-12-06 | 1993-06-10 | The Welding Institute | Improvements relating to friction welding |
WO1998045080A1 (en) * | 1997-04-04 | 1998-10-15 | Esab Ab | Method and apparatus for friction stir welding |
-
1998
- 1998-02-09 NO NO980542A patent/NO980542D0/en unknown
-
1999
- 1999-02-08 AU AU24429/99A patent/AU2442999A/en not_active Abandoned
- 1999-02-08 WO PCT/NO1999/000042 patent/WO1999039861A1/en active Application Filing
Patent Citations (4)
Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
---|---|---|---|---|
US4144110A (en) * | 1969-06-05 | 1979-03-13 | Jane Luc | Dynamic friction bonding process |
US3779446A (en) * | 1971-10-13 | 1973-12-18 | J Lemelson | Welding apparatus |
WO1993010935A1 (en) * | 1991-12-06 | 1993-06-10 | The Welding Institute | Improvements relating to friction welding |
WO1998045080A1 (en) * | 1997-04-04 | 1998-10-15 | Esab Ab | Method and apparatus for friction stir welding |
Non-Patent Citations (1)
Title |
---|
DERWENT'S ABSTRACT, No. 98-514328/44, week 9844; & JP 10225781 A (SHOWA ALUMINUM CORP) 25 August 1998. * |
Cited By (60)
Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
---|---|---|---|---|
US6264088B1 (en) * | 1997-05-16 | 2001-07-24 | Esab Ab | Welding assembly for friction stir welding |
US6168067B1 (en) | 1998-06-23 | 2001-01-02 | Mcdonnell Douglas Corporation | High strength friction stir welding |
US6722556B2 (en) * | 1999-11-18 | 2004-04-20 | Gkss Forschungszentrum Geesthacht Gmbh | Method and device for joining at least two adjoining work pieces by friction welding |
US9061370B2 (en) | 2000-05-08 | 2015-06-23 | Brigham Young University | Friction stir welding using a superabrasive tool |
US7993575B2 (en) | 2000-05-08 | 2011-08-09 | Megastir Technologies, LLC | Friction stir welding using a superabrasive tool |
US7124929B2 (en) | 2000-05-08 | 2006-10-24 | Sii Megadiamond, Inc. | Friction stir welding of metal matrix composites, ferrous alloys, non-ferrous alloys, and superalloys using a superabrasive tool |
US6648206B2 (en) | 2000-05-08 | 2003-11-18 | Tracey W. Nelson | Friction stir welding using a superabrasive tool |
US7152776B2 (en) | 2000-05-08 | 2006-12-26 | Sii Megadiamond, Inc. | Friction stir welding using a superabrasive tool |
US8302834B2 (en) | 2000-05-08 | 2012-11-06 | MegaStar Technologies LLC | Friction stir welding using a superabrasive tool |
US6779704B2 (en) | 2000-05-08 | 2004-08-24 | Tracy W. Nelson | Friction stir welding of metal matrix composites, ferrous alloys, non-ferrous alloys, and superalloys using a superabrasive tool |
US7661572B2 (en) | 2000-05-08 | 2010-02-16 | Brigham Young University | Friction stir welding using a superabrasive tool |
WO2002007924A1 (en) * | 2000-07-25 | 2002-01-31 | Eads Deutschland Gmbh | Laser supported friction stir welding method |
US6793118B2 (en) | 2000-07-25 | 2004-09-21 | Eads Deutschland Gmbh | Laser supported friction stir welding method |
DE10036170C1 (en) * | 2000-07-25 | 2001-12-06 | Eads Deutschland Gmbh | Laser-supported friction welding process comprises pressing side surfaces of the workpieces so that they touch the workpiece surface moving away from the welding probe and are spaced in the central region up to the workpiece surface |
US6352193B1 (en) | 2000-08-01 | 2002-03-05 | General Electric Company | Apparatus for joining electrically conductive materials |
US6736305B2 (en) | 2000-09-07 | 2004-05-18 | Rolls-Royce Plc | Method and apparatus for friction welding |
US6769595B2 (en) * | 2000-12-20 | 2004-08-03 | Alcoa Inc. | Friction plunge riveting |
WO2002074479A1 (en) * | 2001-03-19 | 2002-09-26 | Rotem Industries Ltd. | Improved process and apparatus for friction stir welding |
US7608296B2 (en) | 2001-06-12 | 2009-10-27 | Brigham Young University | Anvil for friction stir welding high temperature materials |
US8127977B1 (en) | 2001-11-27 | 2012-03-06 | The United States Of America As Represented By The Administrator Of The National Aeronautics And Space Administration | Thermal stir welder |
US8225984B1 (en) * | 2001-11-27 | 2012-07-24 | The United States Of America As Represented By The Administrator Of The National Aeronautics And Space Administration | Thermal stir welding process |
US7980449B2 (en) * | 2001-11-27 | 2011-07-19 | The United States Of America As Represented By The Administrator Of The National Aeronautics And Space Administration | Thermal stir welding apparatus |
US6780525B2 (en) * | 2001-12-26 | 2004-08-24 | The Boeing Company | High strength friction stir welding |
CN1301822C (en) * | 2002-09-17 | 2007-02-28 | 波音公司 | Radiation assisted friction welding |
US6776328B2 (en) | 2002-09-17 | 2004-08-17 | The Boeing Company | Radiation assisted friction welding |
US7270257B2 (en) | 2003-01-30 | 2007-09-18 | Sii Megadiamond, Inc. | Out-of-position friction stir welding of high melting temperature alloys |
US7530486B2 (en) | 2003-05-05 | 2009-05-12 | Sii Megadiamond, Inc. | Applications of friction stir welding using a superabrasive tool |
US7225968B2 (en) | 2003-08-04 | 2007-06-05 | Sii Megadiamond, Inc. | Crack repair using friction stir welding on materials including metal matrix composites, ferrous alloys, non-ferrous alloys, and superalloys |
US7121448B2 (en) | 2003-08-29 | 2006-10-17 | General Electric Company | Friction stir welding apparatus and associated thermal management systems and methods |
US6913186B2 (en) | 2003-09-11 | 2005-07-05 | The Boeing Company | Apparatus and method for friction stir welding with a variable speed pin |
CN1313238C (en) * | 2003-09-11 | 2007-05-02 | 波音公司 | Apparatus and method for friction stir welding with a variable speed pin |
EP1514632A1 (en) * | 2003-09-11 | 2005-03-16 | The Boeing Company | Apparatus and method for friction stir welding with a variable speed pin |
US8186561B2 (en) | 2004-03-24 | 2012-05-29 | Megastir Technologies, LLC | Solid state processing of hand-held knife blades to improve blade performance |
US8955734B2 (en) | 2004-05-21 | 2015-02-17 | Smith International, Inc. | Ball hole welding using the friction stir welding (FSW) process |
US7156277B2 (en) * | 2004-09-27 | 2007-01-02 | Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. | Friction stir welding method and apparatus |
US7651018B2 (en) | 2004-10-05 | 2010-01-26 | Sii Megadiamond | Expandable mandrel for use in friction stir welding |
US7078647B2 (en) | 2004-10-21 | 2006-07-18 | Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation | Arc-enhanced friction stir welding |
US7882998B2 (en) | 2005-09-26 | 2011-02-08 | Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht Zentrum für Material-und Küstenforschung GmbH | Method and apparatus of producing a welded connection between the surfaces of two planar workpieces |
US8056797B2 (en) | 2005-10-05 | 2011-11-15 | Megastir Technologies | Expandable mandrel for use in friction stir welding |
US8550326B2 (en) | 2005-10-05 | 2013-10-08 | Megastir Technologies Llc | Expandable mandrel for use in friction stir welding |
US8967451B2 (en) | 2008-07-09 | 2015-03-03 | Fluor Technologies Corporation | High-speed friction stir welding |
US9242308B2 (en) | 2009-11-02 | 2016-01-26 | Megastir Technologies Llc | Out of position friction stir welding of casing and small diameter tubing or pipe |
DE102010018504A1 (en) | 2010-04-28 | 2011-11-03 | Aleris Aluminum Koblenz Gmbh | Producing a hollow profile, preferably a tube made of a semi-finished metal, comprises welding the semi-finished product along a weld seam running in extending direction of the hollow profile to be produced, and using friction stir welding |
WO2012084140A1 (en) * | 2010-12-14 | 2012-06-28 | Hochschule Für Angewandte Wissenschaften - Fachhochschule Kempten | Method for joining workpieces by using a joining element and heating the joining element and the workpieces |
US9339892B2 (en) | 2010-12-14 | 2016-05-17 | Hochschule fuer angewandte Wissenschaften—Fachhochschule Kempten | Method for joining workpieces by using a joining element and heating the joining element and the workpieces |
US10647064B2 (en) | 2011-12-01 | 2020-05-12 | Lawrence Livermore National Security, Llc | System and method for light assisted friction stir processing and welding of metallic and non-metallic materials |
WO2013081731A1 (en) * | 2011-12-01 | 2013-06-06 | Lawrence Livermore National Security, Llc | System and method for light assisted friction stir processing and welding of metallic and non-metallic materials |
US9676056B2 (en) | 2011-12-16 | 2017-06-13 | Hochschule für angewandte Wissenschaften—Fachhochschule Kempten | Method for joining two essentially metal sheet-type workpieces by means of friction squeeze welding using a filler material |
US10195686B2 (en) | 2011-12-16 | 2019-02-05 | Hochschule für angewandte Wissenschaften—Fachhochshule Kempten | Method for joining two essentially metal sheet-type workpieces using friction squeeze welding |
US9216473B2 (en) * | 2012-04-18 | 2015-12-22 | Ford Global Technologies, Llc | Clamping and heating apparatus for joining tools |
US20130276299A1 (en) * | 2012-04-18 | 2013-10-24 | Ford Global Technologies, Llc | Clamping and Heating Apparatus For Joining Tools |
CN105033475A (en) * | 2015-09-18 | 2015-11-11 | 哈尔滨工业大学 | Steel-side-high-frequency-induction-heating-assisted friction stir welding method for alumimum-steel material butt joint |
CN107877016B (en) * | 2017-12-11 | 2020-04-14 | 一重集团天津重工有限公司 | Steel butt-jointed induction heating-stirring friction composite welding method and device |
CN107877016A (en) * | 2017-12-11 | 2018-04-06 | 重集团天津重工有限公司 | The sensing heating stirring friction composition welding method and device of steel docking |
GB2608136A (en) * | 2021-06-22 | 2022-12-28 | Pinweld Ltd | Polymeric pipe welding apparatus |
GB2608136B (en) * | 2021-06-22 | 2024-01-03 | Pinweld Ltd | Polymeric pipe welding apparatus |
CN114951955A (en) * | 2022-05-26 | 2022-08-30 | 南京航空航天大学 | Friction stir welding composite energy field method and device for high-melting-point dissimilar material thin plate |
CN115121932A (en) * | 2022-06-29 | 2022-09-30 | 广东铭利达科技有限公司 | Aluminum alloy ultrasonic vibration assisted stirring friction welding method |
CN114939716A (en) * | 2022-07-06 | 2022-08-26 | 重庆理工大学 | Method for improving surface corrosion sensitivity of aluminum alloy friction stir welding joint |
CN114939716B (en) * | 2022-07-06 | 2023-08-29 | 重庆理工大学 | Method for improving corrosion sensitivity of aluminum alloy friction stir welding joint surface |
Also Published As
Publication number | Publication date |
---|---|
AU2442999A (en) | 1999-08-23 |
NO980542D0 (en) | 1998-02-09 |
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