CA2607005A1 - Identifying threats in electronic messages - Google Patents
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- CA2607005A1 CA2607005A1 CA002607005A CA2607005A CA2607005A1 CA 2607005 A1 CA2607005 A1 CA 2607005A1 CA 002607005 A CA002607005 A CA 002607005A CA 2607005 A CA2607005 A CA 2607005A CA 2607005 A1 CA2607005 A1 CA 2607005A1
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- H—ELECTRICITY
- H04—ELECTRIC COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUE
- H04L—TRANSMISSION OF DIGITAL INFORMATION, e.g. TELEGRAPHIC COMMUNICATION
- H04L51/00—User-to-user messaging in packet-switching networks, transmitted according to store-and-forward or real-time protocols, e.g. e-mail
- H04L51/21—Monitoring or handling of messages
- H04L51/212—Monitoring or handling of messages using filtering or selective blocking
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- G—PHYSICS
- G06—COMPUTING; CALCULATING OR COUNTING
- G06Q—INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY [ICT] SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR ADMINISTRATIVE, COMMERCIAL, FINANCIAL, MANAGERIAL OR SUPERVISORY PURPOSES; SYSTEMS OR METHODS SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR ADMINISTRATIVE, COMMERCIAL, FINANCIAL, MANAGERIAL OR SUPERVISORY PURPOSES, NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
- G06Q10/00—Administration; Management
- G06Q10/10—Office automation; Time management
- G06Q10/107—Computer-aided management of electronic mailing [e-mailing]
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- H—ELECTRICITY
- H04—ELECTRIC COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUE
- H04L—TRANSMISSION OF DIGITAL INFORMATION, e.g. TELEGRAPHIC COMMUNICATION
- H04L51/00—User-to-user messaging in packet-switching networks, transmitted according to store-and-forward or real-time protocols, e.g. e-mail
- H04L51/21—Monitoring or handling of messages
- H04L51/234—Monitoring or handling of messages for tracking messages
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- H—ELECTRICITY
- H04—ELECTRIC COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUE
- H04L—TRANSMISSION OF DIGITAL INFORMATION, e.g. TELEGRAPHIC COMMUNICATION
- H04L63/00—Network architectures or network communication protocols for network security
- H04L63/12—Applying verification of the received information
- H04L63/123—Applying verification of the received information received data contents, e.g. message integrity
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- H—ELECTRICITY
- H04—ELECTRIC COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUE
- H04L—TRANSMISSION OF DIGITAL INFORMATION, e.g. TELEGRAPHIC COMMUNICATION
- H04L63/00—Network architectures or network communication protocols for network security
- H04L63/12—Applying verification of the received information
- H04L63/126—Applying verification of the received information the source of the received data
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- H—ELECTRICITY
- H04—ELECTRIC COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUE
- H04L—TRANSMISSION OF DIGITAL INFORMATION, e.g. TELEGRAPHIC COMMUNICATION
- H04L63/00—Network architectures or network communication protocols for network security
- H04L63/14—Network architectures or network communication protocols for network security for detecting or protecting against malicious traffic
- H04L63/1441—Countermeasures against malicious traffic
- H04L63/145—Countermeasures against malicious traffic the attack involving the propagation of malware through the network, e.g. viruses, trojans or worms
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- H—ELECTRICITY
- H04—ELECTRIC COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUE
- H04L—TRANSMISSION OF DIGITAL INFORMATION, e.g. TELEGRAPHIC COMMUNICATION
- H04L61/00—Network arrangements, protocols or services for addressing or naming
- H04L61/45—Network directories; Name-to-address mapping
- H04L61/4505—Network directories; Name-to-address mapping using standardised directories; using standardised directory access protocols
- H04L61/4511—Network directories; Name-to-address mapping using standardised directories; using standardised directory access protocols using domain name system [DNS]
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Abstract
Early detection of computer viruses and other message-borne threats is provided by applying heuristic tests to message content and examining sender reputation information when no virus signature information is available. As a result, a messaging gateway can suspend delivery of messages early in a virus outbreak, providing sufficient time for updating an anti-virus checker that can strip virus code from the messages. A dynamic and flexible threat quarantine queue is provided with a variety of exit criteria and exit actions that permits early release of messages in other than first in, first-out order. A message scanning method is described in which early exit from parsing and scanning can occur by matching threat rules only to selected message elements and stopping rule matching as soon as a match on one message element exceeds a threat threshold.
Claims (61)
1. An apparatus, comprising:
a network interface;
one or more processors coupled to the network interface;
logic coupled to the one or more processors which, when executed by the one or more processors, causes the one or more processors to perform:
receiving an electronic mail message having a destination address for a recipient account;
determining a virus score value for the message based upon one or more rules that specify attributes of messages that are known to contain computer viruses, wherein the attributes comprise a type of file attachment to the message, a size of the file attachment, and one or more heuristics based on the message sender, subject or body and other than file attachment signatures;
when the virus score value is greater than or equal to a specified threshold, storing the message in a quarantine queue without immediately delivering the message to the recipient account.
a network interface;
one or more processors coupled to the network interface;
logic coupled to the one or more processors which, when executed by the one or more processors, causes the one or more processors to perform:
receiving an electronic mail message having a destination address for a recipient account;
determining a virus score value for the message based upon one or more rules that specify attributes of messages that are known to contain computer viruses, wherein the attributes comprise a type of file attachment to the message, a size of the file attachment, and one or more heuristics based on the message sender, subject or body and other than file attachment signatures;
when the virus score value is greater than or equal to a specified threshold, storing the message in a quarantine queue without immediately delivering the message to the recipient account.
2. The apparatus of claim 1 or 30, wherein the attributes comprise a type of content of the attachment.
3. The apparatus of claim 1 or 30, wherein the attributes comprise an identification of a sender of the message.
4. The apparatus of claim 1 or 30, wherein the heuristics comprise matching content of a body of the message to a dictionary of words that have been commonly used in the bodies of other messages that have carried viruses.
5. The apparatus of claim 1 or 30, wherein the heuristics comprise matching content of a subject of the message to a dictionary of words that have been commonly used in the subject lines of other messages that have carried viruses.
6. The apparatus of claim 1 or 30, wherein the heuristics comprise:
extracting a sender identifier from the message;
retrieving a reputation score value associated with the sender identifier;
determining the virus score value based at least in part on the reputation score value.
extracting a sender identifier from the message;
retrieving a reputation score value associated with the sender identifier;
determining the virus score value based at least in part on the reputation score value.
7. The apparatus of claim 1 or 30, wherein the heuristics comprise matching bytes of a file attachment of the message to a rule that uniquely identifies initial bytes of Microsoft executable files.
8. The apparatus of claim 1 or 30, wherein the heuristics comprise:
extracting a sender identifier from the message;
determining whether the sender identifier is in a locally stored blacklist of senders;
determining the virus score value based at least in part on whether the sender identifier is in the blacklist.
extracting a sender identifier from the message;
determining whether the sender identifier is in a locally stored blacklist of senders;
determining the virus score value based at least in part on whether the sender identifier is in the blacklist.
9. The apparatus of claim 1 or 30, wherein the heuristics comprise:
extracting a sender identifier from the message;
requesting, over a network, an external service to determine whether the sender identifier is in a stored blacklist of senders, and receiving a response from the external service;
determining the virus score value based at least in part on the response.
extracting a sender identifier from the message;
requesting, over a network, an external service to determine whether the sender identifier is in a stored blacklist of senders, and receiving a response from the external service;
determining the virus score value based at least in part on the response.
10. An apparatus, comprising:
a network interface;
one or more processors coupled to the network interface;
logic coupled to the one or more processors which, when executed by the one or more processors, causes the one or more processors to perform:
receiving an electronic mail message having a destination address for a recipient account;
determining a threat score value for the message;
when the threat score value is greater than or equal to a specified threat threshold, storing the message in a quarantine queue without immediately delivering the message to the recipient account;
releasing the message from the quarantine queue in other than first-in-first-out order upon any of a plurality of quarantine exit criteria, wherein each quarantine exit criterion is associated with one or more exit actions; and upon a particular exit criterion, selecting and performing the associated one or more exit actions.
a network interface;
one or more processors coupled to the network interface;
logic coupled to the one or more processors which, when executed by the one or more processors, causes the one or more processors to perform:
receiving an electronic mail message having a destination address for a recipient account;
determining a threat score value for the message;
when the threat score value is greater than or equal to a specified threat threshold, storing the message in a quarantine queue without immediately delivering the message to the recipient account;
releasing the message from the quarantine queue in other than first-in-first-out order upon any of a plurality of quarantine exit criteria, wherein each quarantine exit criterion is associated with one or more exit actions; and upon a particular exit criterion, selecting and performing the associated one or more exit actions.
11. The apparatus of claim 10 or 31, wherein the quarantine exit criteria comprise expiration of a message quarantine time limit, overflow of the quarantine queue, manual release from the quarantine queue, and receiving an update to one or more rules for determining the threat score value.
12. The apparatus of claim 10 or 31, wherein the exit actions comprise removing the file attachment from the message and delivering the message without the file attachment to the recipient account; deleting the message; modifying a subject line of the message; and adding an X-Header to the message.
13. The apparatus of claim 10 or 31, further comprising logic for performing different actions in response to (a) a user request to manually release the message from the message quarantine, (b) expiration of a timer associated with the message, and (c) the message quarantine becoming full.
14. The apparatus of claim 10 or 31, further comprising logic for (a) in response to a user request to manually release the message from the message quarantine, delivering the message to the recipient account without modification; and (b) in response to the message quarantine becoming full, removing the file attachment from the message and delivering the message without the file attachment to the recipient account.
15. The apparatus of claim 10 or 31, further comprising logic for assigning an expiration time value to the message, wherein the expiration time value differs based upon results of applying heuristic tests to the message content.
16. The apparatus of claim 10 or 31, wherein the quarantine exit criteria comprise receiving an update to one or more rules for determining the threat score value, and wlierein the exit actions comprise again determining a threat score value for the message based upon the updated rules.
17. The apparatus of claim 10 or 31, wherein the exit actions comprise sending a copy of the message to a second quarantine queue on a host other than the apparatus.
18. The apparatus of claim 10 or 31, wherein one or more different sets of exit actions are associated with different quarantine exit criteria.
19. The apparatus of claim 10 or 31, further comprising logic for determining when the threat score value is greater than or equal to a specified reporting threshold, and in response thereto, creating and sending an alert message to another host.
20. The apparatus of claim 10 or 31, wherein the threat comprises any one of a virus, spam, or a phishing attack.
21. An apparatus, comprising:
a network interface;
one or more processors coupled to the network interface;
logic coupled to the one or more processors which, when executed by the one or more processors, causes the one or more processors to perform:
receiving and storing a plurality of rules specifying characteristics of electronic messages that indicate threats associated with the messages, wherein each rule has a priority value, wherein each rule is associated with a message element type;
receiving an electronic mail message having a destination address for a recipient account, wherein the message comprises a plurality of message elements;
extracting a first message element;
determining a threat score value for the message by matching only the first message element to only selected rules having a message element type corresponding to the first message element, and according to an order of the priorities of the selected rules;
when the threat score value is greater than a specified threshold, outputting the threat score value.
a network interface;
one or more processors coupled to the network interface;
logic coupled to the one or more processors which, when executed by the one or more processors, causes the one or more processors to perform:
receiving and storing a plurality of rules specifying characteristics of electronic messages that indicate threats associated with the messages, wherein each rule has a priority value, wherein each rule is associated with a message element type;
receiving an electronic mail message having a destination address for a recipient account, wherein the message comprises a plurality of message elements;
extracting a first message element;
determining a threat score value for the message by matching only the first message element to only selected rules having a message element type corresponding to the first message element, and according to an order of the priorities of the selected rules;
when the threat score value is greater than a specified threshold, outputting the threat score value.
22. The apparatus of claim 21 or 32, further comprising logic for determining an updated threat score value for the message by matching other message elements to other rules only when the threat score value is less than a specified threshold.
23. The apparatus of claim 21 or 32, wherein the message elements comprise one or more message headers, a message body, and one or more HTML elements in the message body.
24. The apparatus of claim 21 or 32, wherein the first message element comprises one or more message headers, the selected rules comprise only header rules, and the plurality of rules includes the header rules, raw body rules, and HTML body rules.
25. The apparatus of claim 21 or 32, further comprising logic for determining the threat score value for the message by matching only the first message element to only the selected rules having a message element type corresponding to the first message element, and according to an order of the priorities of the selected rules; after matching each rule among the selected rules, testing whether the threat score value is greater than the specified threshold; and when the threat score value is greater than a specified threshold, outputting the threat score value.
26. The apparatus of claim 21 or 32, further comprising logic for determining an updated threat score value for the message by decoding a body of the message and matching the body to one or more raw body rules only when the threat score value is less than a specified threshold.
27. The apparatus of claim 21 or 32, further comprising logic for determining an updated threat score value for the message by rendering markup language message elements and matching the rendered markup language message elements to one or more body rules only when the threat score value is less than a specified threshold.
28. The apparatus of claim 21 or 32, wherein the logic comprises an anti-spam scanning engine.
29. The apparatus of claim 21 or 32, wherein the threats comprise any one of a virus, spam, or a phishing attack.
30. An apparatus, comprising:
means for receiving an electronic mail message having a destination address for a recipient account;
means for determining a virus score value for the message based upon one or more rules that specify attributes of messages that are known to contain computer viruses, wherein the attributes comprise a type of file attachment to the message, a size of the file attachment, and one or more heuristics based on the message sender, subject or body and other than file attachment signatures;
means for storing the message in a quarantine queue without immediately delivering the message to the recipient account when the virus score value is greater than or equal to a specified threshold.
means for receiving an electronic mail message having a destination address for a recipient account;
means for determining a virus score value for the message based upon one or more rules that specify attributes of messages that are known to contain computer viruses, wherein the attributes comprise a type of file attachment to the message, a size of the file attachment, and one or more heuristics based on the message sender, subject or body and other than file attachment signatures;
means for storing the message in a quarantine queue without immediately delivering the message to the recipient account when the virus score value is greater than or equal to a specified threshold.
31. An apparatus, comprising:
means for receiving an electronic mail message having a destination address for a recipient account;
means for determining a threat score value for the message;
means for storing the message in a quarantine queue without immediately delivering the message to the recipient account when the threat score value is greater than or equal to a specified threat threshold;
means for releasing the message from the quarantine queue in other than first-in-first-out order upon any of a plurality of quarantine exit criteria, wherein each quarantine exit criterion is associated with one or more exit actions; and means for selecting and performing the associated one or more exit actions upon a particular exit criterion.
means for receiving an electronic mail message having a destination address for a recipient account;
means for determining a threat score value for the message;
means for storing the message in a quarantine queue without immediately delivering the message to the recipient account when the threat score value is greater than or equal to a specified threat threshold;
means for releasing the message from the quarantine queue in other than first-in-first-out order upon any of a plurality of quarantine exit criteria, wherein each quarantine exit criterion is associated with one or more exit actions; and means for selecting and performing the associated one or more exit actions upon a particular exit criterion.
32. An apparatus, comprising:
means for receiving and storing a plurality of rules specifying characteristics of electronic messages that indicate threats associated with the messages, wherein each rule has a priority value, wlierein each rule is associated with a message element type;
means for receiving an electronic mail message having a destination address for a recipient account, wherein the message comprises a plurality of message elements;
means for extracting a first message element;
means for determining a threat score value for the message by matching only the first message element to only selected rules having a message element type corresponding to the first message element, and according to an order of the priorities of the selected rules;
means for outputting the threat score value when the threat score value is greater than a specified threshold.
means for receiving and storing a plurality of rules specifying characteristics of electronic messages that indicate threats associated with the messages, wherein each rule has a priority value, wlierein each rule is associated with a message element type;
means for receiving an electronic mail message having a destination address for a recipient account, wherein the message comprises a plurality of message elements;
means for extracting a first message element;
means for determining a threat score value for the message by matching only the first message element to only selected rules having a message element type corresponding to the first message element, and according to an order of the priorities of the selected rules;
means for outputting the threat score value when the threat score value is greater than a specified threshold.
33. A method, comprising:
receiving an electronic mail message having a destination address for a recipient account;
determining a virus score value for the message based upon one or more rules that specify attributes of messages that are known to contain computer viruses, wherein the attributes comprise a type of file attachment to the message, a size of the file attachment, and one or more heuristics based on the message sender, subject or body and other than file attachment signatures;
when the virus score value is greater than or equal to a specified threshold, storing the message in a quarantine queue without immediately delivering the message to the recipient account.
receiving an electronic mail message having a destination address for a recipient account;
determining a virus score value for the message based upon one or more rules that specify attributes of messages that are known to contain computer viruses, wherein the attributes comprise a type of file attachment to the message, a size of the file attachment, and one or more heuristics based on the message sender, subject or body and other than file attachment signatures;
when the virus score value is greater than or equal to a specified threshold, storing the message in a quarantine queue without immediately delivering the message to the recipient account.
34. The method of claim 33, wherein the attributes comprise a type of content of the attachment.
35. The method of claim 33, wherein the attributes comprise an identification of a sender of the message.
36. The method of claim 33, wherein the heuristics comprise matching content of a body of the message to a dictionary of words that have been commonly used in the bodies of other messages that have carried viruses.
37. The method of claim 33, wherein the heuristics comprise matching content of a subject of the message to a dictionary of words that have been commonly used in the subject lines of other messages that have carried viruses.
38. The method of claim 33, wherein the heuristics comprise:
extracting a sender identifier from the message;
retrieving a reputation score value associated with the sender identifier;
determining the virus score value based at least in part on the reputation score value.
extracting a sender identifier from the message;
retrieving a reputation score value associated with the sender identifier;
determining the virus score value based at least in part on the reputation score value.
39. The method of claim 33, wherein the heuristics comprise matching bytes of a file attachment of the message to a rule that uniquely identifies initial bytes of Microsoft executable files.
40. The method of claim 33, wherein the heuristics comprise:
extracting a sender identifier from the message;
determining whether the sender identifier is in a locally stored blacklist of senders;
determining the virus score value based at least in part on whether the sender identifier is in the blacklist.
extracting a sender identifier from the message;
determining whether the sender identifier is in a locally stored blacklist of senders;
determining the virus score value based at least in part on whether the sender identifier is in the blacklist.
41. The method of claim 33, wherein the heuristics comprise:
extracting a sender identifier from the message;
requesting, over a network, an external service to determine whether the sender identifier is in a stored blacklist of senders, and receiving a response from the external service;
determining the virus score value based at least in part on the response.
extracting a sender identifier from the message;
requesting, over a network, an external service to determine whether the sender identifier is in a stored blacklist of senders, and receiving a response from the external service;
determining the virus score value based at least in part on the response.
42. A method, comprising:
receiving an electronic mail message having a destination address for a recipient account;
determining a threat score value for the message;
when the threat score value is greater than or equal to a specified threat threshold, storing the message in a quarantine queue without immediately delivering the message to the recipient account;
releasing the message from the quarantine queue in other than first-in-first-out order upon any of a plurality of quarantine exit criteria, wherein each quarantine exit criterion is associated with one or more exit actions; and upon a particular exit criterion, selecting and performing the associated one or more exit actions.
receiving an electronic mail message having a destination address for a recipient account;
determining a threat score value for the message;
when the threat score value is greater than or equal to a specified threat threshold, storing the message in a quarantine queue without immediately delivering the message to the recipient account;
releasing the message from the quarantine queue in other than first-in-first-out order upon any of a plurality of quarantine exit criteria, wherein each quarantine exit criterion is associated with one or more exit actions; and upon a particular exit criterion, selecting and performing the associated one or more exit actions.
43. The method of claim 42, wherein the quarantine exit criteria comprise expiration of a message quarantine time limit, overflow of the quarantine queue, manual release from the quarantine queue, and receiving an update to one or more rules for determining the threat score value.
44. The method of claim 42, wherein the exit actions comprise removing the file attachment from the message and delivering the message without the file attachment to the recipient account; deleting the message; modifying a subject line of the message; and adding an X-Header to the message.
45. The method of claim 42, further comprising logic for performing different actions in response to (a) a user request to manually release the message from the message quarantine, (b) expiration of a timer associated with the message, and (c) the message quarantine becoming full.
46. The method of claim 42, further comprising logic for (a) in response to a user request to manually release the message from the message quarantine, delivering the message to the recipient account without modification; and (b) in response to the message quarantine becoming full, removing the file attachment from the message and delivering the message without the file attachment to the recipient account.
47. The method of claim 42, further comprising logic for assigning an expiration time value to the message, wherein the expiration time value differs based upon results of applying heuristic tests to the message content.
48. The method of claim 42, wherein the quarantine exit criteria comprise receiving an update to one or more rules for determining the threat score value, and wherein the exit actions comprise again determining a threat score value for the message based upon the updated rules.
49. The method of claim 42, wherein the exit actions comprise sending a copy of the message to a second quarantine queue on a host other than the method.
50. The method of claim 42, wherein one or more different sets of exit actions are associated with different quarantine exit criteria.
51. The method of claim 42, further comprising logic for determining when the threat score value is greater than or equal to a specified reporting threshold, and in response thereto, creating and sending an alert message to another host.
52. The method of claim 42, wherein the threat comprises any one of a virus, spam, or a phishing attack.
53. A method, comprising:
a network interface;
one or more processors coupled to the network interface;
logic coupled to the one or more processors which, when executed by the one or more processors, causes the one or more processors to perform:
receiving and storing a plurality of rules specifying characteristics of electronic messages that indicate threats associated with the messages, wherein each rule has a priority value, wherein each rule is associated with a message element type;
receiving an electronic mail message having a destination address for a recipient account, wherein the message comprises a plurality of message elements;
extracting a first message element;
determining a threat score value for the message by matching only the first message element to only selected rules having a message element type corresponding to the first message element, and according to an order of the priorities of the selected rules;
when the threat score value is greater than a specified threshold, outputting the threat score value.
a network interface;
one or more processors coupled to the network interface;
logic coupled to the one or more processors which, when executed by the one or more processors, causes the one or more processors to perform:
receiving and storing a plurality of rules specifying characteristics of electronic messages that indicate threats associated with the messages, wherein each rule has a priority value, wherein each rule is associated with a message element type;
receiving an electronic mail message having a destination address for a recipient account, wherein the message comprises a plurality of message elements;
extracting a first message element;
determining a threat score value for the message by matching only the first message element to only selected rules having a message element type corresponding to the first message element, and according to an order of the priorities of the selected rules;
when the threat score value is greater than a specified threshold, outputting the threat score value.
54. The method of claim 53, further comprising logic for determining an updated threat score value for the message by matching other message elements to other rules only when the threat score value is less than a specified threshold.
55. The method of claim 53, wherein the message elements comprise one or more message headers, a message body, and one or more HTML elements in the message body.
56. The method of claim 53, wherein the first message element comprises one or more message headers, the selected rules comprise only header rules, and the plurality of rules includes the header rules, raw body rules, and HTML body rules.
57. The method of claim 53, further comprising logic for determining the threat score value for the message by matching only the first message element to only the selected rules having a message element type corresponding to the first message element, and according to an order of the priorities of the selected rules; after matching each rule among the selected rules, testing whether the threat score value is greater than the specified threshold; and when the threat score value is greater than a specified threshold, outputting the threat score value.
58. The method of claim 53, further comprising logic for determining an updated threat score value for the message by decoding a body of the message and matching the body to one or more raw body rules only when the threat score value is less than a specified threshold.
59. The method of claim 53, further comprising logic for determining an updated threat score value for the message by rendering markup language message elements and matching the rendered markup language message elements to one or more body rules only when the threat score value is less than a specified threshold.
60. The method of claim 53, wherein the logic comprises an anti-spam scanning engine.
61. The method of claim 53, wherein the threats comprise any one of a virus, spam, or a phishing attack.
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US60/678,391 | 2005-05-05 | ||
PCT/US2006/017783 WO2006119509A2 (en) | 2005-05-05 | 2006-05-05 | Identifying threats in electronic messages |
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CA2607005A1 true CA2607005A1 (en) | 2006-11-09 |
CA2607005C CA2607005C (en) | 2012-02-07 |
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CA2607005A Expired - Fee Related CA2607005C (en) | 2005-05-05 | 2006-05-05 | Identifying threats in electronic messages |
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CA2606998A Expired - Fee Related CA2606998C (en) | 2005-05-05 | 2006-05-05 | Detecting unwanted electronic mail messages based on probabilistic analysis of referenced resources |
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Cited By (1)
Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
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US20220094662A1 (en) * | 2018-05-22 | 2022-03-24 | Proofpoint, Inc. | Domain name processing systems and methods |
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